Plate III · The Approaches

Choose your approach.

Plant a complete diverse forest at any scale — or manage first and buy only what won't arrive in time. Both assume management work comes first: see Before You Plant.

What You'll Plant

A complete forest in eight species.

Click any to read more — full species guide has all forty-six.

The difference isn't
how many trees you plant.

— It's whether you plant a complete diverse mix or only what the forest won't provide on its own.

The Core Principle

Why diversity is the whole point.

Beech made up twenty to thirty percent of this canopy. One pathogen is eliminating it in under a decade. The answer isn't to replace beech with something else at the same dominance — it's to never be that exposed again.

Disease & pest resilience Specialists cannot travel through what they cannot reach.

A specialist pathogen spreads through its host. When any species is five to ten percent of the canopy instead of thirty, the disease burns out before it can travel. Beech, ash, and chestnut all collapsed because each was abundant enough to sustain continuous transmission.

II.

Mycorrhizal networks Trees in a healthy forest are connected underground.

Mycorrhizal fungi link root systems across species, transferring carbon, water, and nutrients between trees that have surplus and trees under stress. More species means more network connections — and a more resilient soil system. Seedlings planted near legacy trees establish faster because they tap into this existing network immediately.

III.

Year-round food web Serviceberry in March; hawthorn through January.

Pagoda dogwood berries ripen in July. Crabapple and mountain ash feed birds through fall. A diverse planting staggers food resources across every month of the year. A two-or-three species forest feeds wildlife in one window and goes quiet for the rest.

IV.

The climate hedge Oaks host 500+ moth and butterfly species; cherry hosts 450+.

Almost all North American land birds raise their young on caterpillars, not berries. More tree species means exponentially more insects means more birds. And since no one knows which species will be the climate winners at 2,000 ft in 2075, a portfolio survives whatever comes. Tallamy & Shropshire, 2009

Side by Side

At a glance

Metric	Full Mix · small	Full Mix · medium	Full Mix · full restoration	Management-First
Trees	~10	~60	~350 + 65 shrubs	150 (5 ac) / 260 (10 ac)
Area	One gap	¼ acre	1 full acre	5–10 acres managed
Total all-in	$80–130	$380–670	$2,300–3,300 over 3 yrs	$535–915
Planting time	1 afternoon	1 full day	1–2 days/yr × 3 yrs	1–2 days/yr, ongoing
Species bought	All layers — same mix at every scale			Only what won't arrive in time
Best for	First-timers; site test	Most landowners	Full commitment, 1 acre	Larger properties; max acres per dollar

A Note on Pace

The canopy decides the pace.

The scales above describe the full commitment. In practice, most landowners plant fifteen to thirty trees a year — the rate canopy gaps actually open as Beech Leaf Disease takes the beech component down gradually. You can't plant where mature canopy still stands.

At that pace, on a typical NEPA 2-acre lot at 50% beech, one or two afternoons each spring matches the rate the forest can absorb new seedlings. After a decade — 150 to 300 trees in the ground — you've reached the "Full Restoration" scale above, but paced to the canopy, not to a calendar.

The "Full Restoration · 3 years" tier is the maximum-aggression path — appropriate where a major canopy collapse has already opened a full acre, or where mechanical clearing has been done. For gradual BLD-driven mortality, the slower canopy pace is the right answer.

Approach I Plant across all ecological layers from the start — canopy oaks and hickories, understory trees, conifers, fruiting trees, and shrubs. The same mix scales to your budget.

Approach I

Full Mix — plant a complete, diverse forest.

All ecological layers from the start. The same species mix scales to your budget. Enter your tree count into the planner and species counts calculate automatically.

Test the site Ten trees · one cluster · one afternoon

Plant before you spend real money. You'll learn deer pressure, which aspects drain better, and what's regenerating naturally. Every species from the full mix is represented — a tenth of everything, not a selection of easy species.

Seedlings~$30–50 Protection · 10 units~$50–80 Total all-in$80–130

ii.

Start meaningful Sixty trees · ¼ acre · one full day

The right starting point for most landowners. Plant irregular clusters of five to seven trees with fifteen to twenty feet between centers. Oaks and hickories in open gaps, maples and birch on north slopes, conifers in cool corners, eight shrubs scattered at cluster edges.

Seedlings · ~60~$150–250 8 shrubs~$30–50 Protection · ~60 units~$200–400 Total · ¼ acre$380–670

iii.

Full restoration ~350 trees · 1 acre · over 3 years

Order in thirds, diversify every year. Weight oaks and hickories a little heavier in Year 1, but each year's order covers all layers — if you stop after any year, that planting stands alone as something complete.

Year 1 · ~120 trees~$950–1,390 Year 2 · ~120 trees + 65 shrubs~$910–1,310 Year 3 · ~80 trees, specialty~$440–600 Total · 1 acre$2,300–3,300

Where to plant — microsite guide

North-facing or moist slopes: sugar maple, yellow birch, serviceberry, balsam fir

Open sunny gaps: red oak, hickories, bigtooth aspen, native crabapple

Dry or rocky ridges: chestnut oak, pignut hickory, black oak, black gum

Cool ravines or stream edges: red spruce, eastern hemlock, basswood, witch hazel

First-season tip — Before the following spring, walk your site and note which trees browsed heavily, which aspects performed better, and where natural seedlings appeared on their own. This observation shapes what you order in Year 2 better than any pre-made plan.

Open the planner — Full Mix →

Approach II For five- to ten-acre properties where planting at full density isn't realistic. Manage conditions first; then buy only what the forest won't provide on its own.

Approach II

Management-First — buy only what won't come naturally.

Many species regenerate on their own once conditions improve. The key insight is knowing which ones will come — and which ones won't.

Five strategic steps, in order:

Manage conditions first — invasives, deer pressure, crop tree release.
Buy only what won't arrive in time — hickories (squirrel-dispersed; 50–100 yrs to colonize naturally), conifers (no seed source at your elevation), yellow birch (needs mineral soil to germinate). Sugar maple and basswood are worth supplementing but will eventually come on their own.
Plant in nucleation clusters — concentrated 65×65ft groups, not scattered trees.
Direct-seed oaks from your legacy trees at no cost.
Let natural dispersal deliver the rest — serviceberry, hop-hornbeam, and pioneers arrive on their own. Protect any found seedlings with wire cages.

Marginalia A nineteen-year New Jersey study planted clusters on less than three percent of a 14.8-acre site and achieved fifty-nine percent total forest cover by year nineteen — driven by birds attracted to the clusters. Corbin et al., 2016

What to Buy

vs. what arrives naturally

Buy these	Let these come
Shagbark, Pignut & Mockernut Hickory · Sugar Maple · Yellow Birch · Basswood · Balsam Fir · Red Spruce · Eastern Hemlock · Pagoda Dogwood · Black Gum	Oaks (direct seed at $0) · Serviceberry (3–7 yrs of deer mgmt) · Hop-Hornbeam · Red Maple · Aspens · Gray Birch · Black Cherry (after black knot mgmt)

Costs by Acreage

Per scale

	5 acres	10 acres
Clusters	8	15
Trees planted	~150	~260
Direct seeded · acorns	300–400	500–700
Seedling cost	~$310–420	~$530–640
Total all-in	$535–645	$805–915
Full-density equivalent	~$4,500–7,500	~$9,000–15,000

EQIP cost-share applies to management costs. At 50–75% reimbursement, invasive control and crop tree release are largely funded. Apply before starting work — details.

The Ecological Logic

Why it works.

Three findings from forest restoration research convert directly into the Management-First strategy.

The deer constraint Pennsylvania has among the highest deer densities in North America.

Penn State research identifies deer browse as directly responsible for more than eighty-five percent of PA forest regeneration failures — not soil, not shade, not disease. Seedlings inside deer exclosures average 88% more height growth. The forest has the seeds and the capacity to recover — it just can't get past the browse layer. Long, Brose & Horsley · 2012

II.

The forest regenerates itself Once conditions improve — invasives treated, crop trees released.

Serviceberry arrives within three to seven years, dispersed by birds. Hop-hornbeam stump-sprouts. Red maple is already regenerating aggressively. Aspen spreads clonally from root systems. Black cherry seeds in after black knot management. The strategic shift is to buy only the species that won't come on their own — primarily hickories, conifers, and yellow birch.

III.

Nucleation multiplies investment Concentrated clusters attract seed-dispersing birds and mammals.

These animals then disperse seeds from your planted clusters outward across the landscape — achieving regeneration far beyond the planted footprint. A nineteen-year study planted on less than three percent of land area and achieved 59% total forest cover. Corbin et al. · 2016 · Ecological Applications

Step by Step

How to do it.

Management-First is not a single-season event. Year 1 is almost entirely management work. Planting starts in Year 2, after conditions have improved enough to justify putting trees in the ground.

— Year I —

Manage conditions first.

Spring through fall.

Protect every planted seedling — one tube or cage per tree. For under-50-acre properties, individual protection is the deer strategy.
Treat invasives — Japanese barberry, multiflora rose, autumn olive. Survival drops to 20–60% when planted into invasive-dominated ground.
Crop tree release — find every oak and hickory over 8–10″ diameter; treat competing red maple and beech sprouts with Garlon 4 Ultra at 5% basal-bark concentration.
Apply for EQIP cost-share before starting any management work. 50–75% reimbursement.
Direct-seed acorns in fall — at no cost, from your own legacy trees.

The full management guide →

— Year II+ —

Plant what won't come naturally.

Spring planting, then ongoing.

Order in late winter for April–May bare-root delivery. Hickories and conifers first.
Plant in concentrated clusters — 15–20 trees per cluster in a ~65×65 ft footprint. Do not scatter individual trees.
Protect every tree — tubes for oaks & hickories; wire cages for sugar maple, conifers, yellow birch.
Continue invasive control and protection maintenance — what keeps natural regeneration establishing.
Direct-seed oaks each fall from your legacy trees — your on-site genetics are free and perfectly adapted.

The planting guide →

Cluster Placement

Where to put your clusters.

Don't spread trees uniformly. Plant each cluster as a dense unit at a specific strategic location.

Largest open gaps without nearby seed trees — nucleation effect is strongest where seed rain is thinnest.
Around released legacy oaks and hickories — your crop tree release creates the seed nucleus; adjacent plantings amplify it.
North-slope transitions — where beech was dominant. Sugar maple + yellow birch + hemlock.
Ridge tops — hickory-dominant clusters. Shagbark and pignut for long-term bat habitat.
Ravine edges — hemlock + balsam fir + hornbeam. Leave unplanted and you lose decades.

Leave the areas between clusters to natural regeneration and direct seeding. Corbin 2016 confirms this is sufficient for landscape-scale recovery.

Natural Arrival

Species that come without planting.

Once invasives are treated and your planted trees start producing seed, expect these within three to ten years.

Serviceberry — bird-dispersed; protect found seedlings with wire cages
Hop-hornbeam — stump-sprouts naturally; protect found seedlings
Bigtooth & Quaking Aspen — clonal root sprouting from existing stems
Gray Birch & Pin Cherry — prolific seeders into disturbed ground
Black Cherry — after black knot survey and tree removal
Sassafras — clonal spread along edges

Open the planner — Management-First →

Evidence Base

The research behind it.

Corbin et al. 2016 — 19-Year Nucleation Study

Ecological Applications · 14.8-acre NJ site

"Concentrated cluster planting on less than 3% of site area achieved 59% total forest cover by year 19, driven by seed-dispersing birds attracted to the planted clusters."

esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com →

Long, Brose & Horsley 2012 — Deer Pressure in PA

Pennsylvania hardwood stands

"Seedlings inside deer exclosures averaged 88% more height growth than unprotected seedlings on identical sites. Deer browsing is the binding constraint on PA forest regeneration."

doi.org/10.1139/x2012-025 →

Kremer et al. 2025 — 120-Study Density Review

Restoration Ecology · systematic review

"Higher planting density produced negative individual tree outcomes in 41% of observations. No minimum density threshold below which trees produce zero ecological value."

onlinelibrary.wiley.com →

PSU Extension — Enrichment Planting Guidance

Jackson & Finley · 2021

"Enrichment planting is appropriate specifically for species difficult to regenerate naturally, such as hickories and conifers."

extension.psu.edu →